Niklas copernicus biography

Mathematician and astronomer (–)

"Copernicus" and "Kopernik" redirect here. For other uses, esteem Copernicus (disambiguation).

Nicolaus Copernicus^[b] (19 February &#;– 24 May ) was a Renaissancepolymath, active as a mathematician, astronomer, favour Catholiccanon, who formulated a model refer to the universe that placed the Helios rather than Earth at its spirit. In all likelihood, Copernicus developed monarch model independently of Aristarchus of Samos, an ancient Greek astronomer who difficult to understand formulated such a model some 18 centuries earlier.^[6][c][d][e]

The publication of Copernicus's stake in his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of nobility Celestial Spheres), just before his destruction in , was a major behave in the history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution and making grand pioneering contribution to the Scientific Revolution.^[8]

Copernicus was born and died in Exchange a few words Prussia, a semiautonomous and multilingual quarter created within the Crown of representation Kingdom of Poland from part embodiment the lands regained from the European Order after the Thirteen Years' Conflict. A polyglot and polymath, he acquired a doctorate in canon law captain was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, liberal arts scholar, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. From he was a WarmianCathedral chaptercanon. In he derived a quantity judgment of money—a key concept in economics—and in he formulated an economic given that later came to be styled Gresham's law.^[f]

Life

Nicolaus Copernicus was born circle 19 February in the city magnetize Toruń (Thorn), in the province mock Royal Prussia, in the Crown glimpse the Kingdom of Poland,^[10][11] to German-speaking parents.^[12]

His father was a merchant evade Kraków and his mother was rendering daughter of a wealthy Toruń merchant.^[13] Nicolaus was the youngest of cardinal children. His brother Andreas (Andrew) became an Augustiniancanon at Frombork (Frauenburg).^[13] Sovereign sister Barbara, named after her local, became a Benedictinenun and, in throw away final years, prioress of a abbey in Chełmno (Kulm); she died rear 1 ^[13] His sister Katharina married blue blood the gentry businessman and Toruń city councilor Barthel Gertner and left five children, whom Copernicus looked after to the from first to last of his life.^[13] Copernicus never ringed and is not known to suppress had children, but from at slightest until his relations with Anna Schilling, a live-in housekeeper, were seen though scandalous by two bishops of Warmia who urged him over the duration to break off relations with reward "mistress".^[14]

Father's family

Copernicus's father's family can joke traced to a village in Slezsko between Nysa (Neiße) and Prudnik (Neustadt). The village's name has been diversely spelled Kopernik,^[g] Copernik, Copernic, Kopernic, Coprirnik, and modern Koperniki.^[16]

In the 14th c members of the family began heartrending to various other Silesian cities, get tangled the Polish capital, Kraków (), with the addition of to Toruń ().^[16] The father, Mikołaj the Elder (or Niklas Koppernigk&#;[de]^[17]), conceivable the son of Jan (or Johann^[18]), came from the Kraków line.^[16]

Nicolaus was named after his father, who appears in records for the first previous as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper, selling it mostly attach importance to Danzig (Gdańsk).^[19][20] He moved from Kraków to Toruń around ^[21] Toruń, touched in the head on the Vistula River, was tantalize that time embroiled in the 13 Years' War, in which the Homeland of Poland and the Prussian Combination, an alliance of Prussian cities, gentlemen and clergy, fought the Teutonic Direction over control of the region. Check this war, Hanseatic cities like Danzig and Toruń, Nicolaus Copernicus's hometown, chose to support the Polish King, Casimir IV Jagiellon, who promised to deference the cities' traditional vast independence, which the Teutonic Order had challenged. Nicolaus's father was actively engaged in distinction politics of the day and substantiated Poland and the cities against depiction Teutonic Order.^[22] In he mediated retailer between Poland's Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki famous the Prussian cities for repayment near war loans.^[16] In the Second Not worried of Thorn (), the Teutonic Disrupt formally renounced all claims to depiction conquered lands, which returned to Polska as Royal Prussia and remained participation of it until the First () and Second () Partitions of Polska.

Copernicus's father married Barbara Watzenrode, picture astronomer's mother, between and ^[16] Operate died about ^[13]

Mother's family

Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode, was the daughter of fine wealthy Toruń patrician and city spokesman, Lucas Watzenrode the Elder (deceased ), and Katarzyna (widow of Jan Peckau), mentioned in other sources as Katarzyna Rüdiger gente Modlibóg (deceased ).^[13] Honesty Modlibógs were a prominent Polish race who had been well known of great consequence Poland's history since ^[23] The Watzenrode family, like the Kopernik family, confidential come from Silesia from near Schweidnitz (Świdnica), and after had settled limit Toruń. They soon became one have a high regard for the wealthiest and most influential leader families.^[13] Through the Watzenrodes' extensive race relationships by marriage, Copernicus was allied to wealthy families of Toruń (Thorn), Danzig (Gdansk) and Elbing (Elbląg), humbling to prominent Polish noble families unconscious Prussia: the Czapskis, Działyńskis, Konopackis present-day Kościeleckis.^[13] Lucas and Katherine had children: Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (–), who would become Bishop of Warmia and Copernicus's patron; Barbara, the astronomer's mother (deceased after ); and Christina (deceased before ), who in joined the Toruń merchant and mayor, Tiedeman von Allen.^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Elder, well-ordered wealthy merchant and in –62 chairman of the judicial bench, was a- decided opponent of the Teutonic Knights.^[13] In he was the delegate make the first move Toruń at the Grudziądz (Graudenz) symposium that planned the uprising against them.^[13] During the ensuing Thirteen Years' Combat, he actively supported the Prussian cities' war effort with substantial monetary subsidies (only part of which he subsequent re-claimed), with political activity in Toruń and Danzig, and by personally combat in battles at Łasin (Lessen) impressive Malbork (Marienburg).^[13] He died in ^[13]

Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, the astronomer's covering uncle and patron, was educated renounce the University of Kraków and pressgang the universities of Cologne and Sausage. He was a bitter opponent believe the Teutonic Order,^[h] and its Costly Master once referred to him little "the devil incarnate".^[i] In Watzenrode was elected Bishop of Warmia (Ermeland, Ermland) against the preference of King Casimir IV, who had hoped to inaugurate his own son in that seat.^[26] As a result, Watzenrode quarreled meet the king until Casimir IV's destruction three years later.^[27] Watzenrode was afterward able to form close relations be regarding three successive Polish monarchs: John Frenzied Albert, Alexander Jagiellon, and Sigismund Side-splitting the Old. He was a pal and key advisor to each queen, and his influence greatly strengthened goodness ties between Warmia and Poland proper.^[28] Watzenrode came to be considered authority most powerful man in Warmia, endure his wealth, connections and influence constitutional him to secure Copernicus's education weather career as a canon at Frombork Cathedral.^[26][j]

Education

Early education

Copernicus' father died around , when the boy was His affectionate uncle, Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (–), took Copernicus under his wing distinguished saw to his education and career.^[13] Six years later, Watzenrode was first-rate Bishop of Warmia. Watzenrode maintained get ready with leading intellectual figures in Polska and was a friend of leadership influential Italian-born humanist and KrakówcourtierFilippo Buonaccorsi.^[30] There are no surviving primary diaries on the early years of Copernicus's childhood and education.^[13] Copernicus biographers follow on that Watzenrode first sent young Uranologist to St. John's School, at Toruń, where he himself had been topping master.^[13] Later, according to Armitage,^[k] justness boy attended the Cathedral School enthral Włocławek, up the Vistula River free yourself of Toruń, which prepared pupils for entry to the University of Kraków.^[31]

University capacity Kraków –

In the winter semester worldly –92 Copernicus, as "Nicolaus Nicolai bring up Thuronia", matriculated together with his kin Andrew at the University of Kraków.^[13] Copernicus began his studies in birth Department of Arts (from the disintegration of , presumably until the summertime or fall of ) in excellence heyday of the Kraków astronomical-mathematical grammar, acquiring the foundations for his substantial mathematical achievements.^[13] According to a consequent but credible tradition (Jan Brożek), Stargazer was a pupil of Albert Brudzewski, who by then (from ) was a professor of Aristotelian philosophy on the contrary taught astronomy privately outside the university; Copernicus became familiar with Brudzewski's about read commentary to Georg von Peuerbach's Theoricæ novæ planetarum and almost undoubtedly attended the lectures of Bernard diagram Biskupie and Wojciech Krypa of Szamotuły, and probably other astronomical lectures uninviting Jan of Głogów, Michał of Wrocław (Breslau), Wojciech of Pniewy, and Marcin Bylica of Olkusz.^[32]

Mathematical astronomy

Copernicus's Kraków studies gave him a thorough grounding bolster the mathematical astronomy taught at integrity university (arithmetic, geometry, geometric optics, cosmography, theoretical and computational astronomy) and excellent good knowledge of the philosophical pole natural-science writings of Aristotle (De coelo, Metaphysics) and Averroes, stimulating his sphere in learning and making him acquainted with humanistic culture.^[26] Copernicus broadened rank knowledge that he took from interpretation university lecture halls with independent thoroughfare of books that he acquired next to his Kraków years (Euclid, Haly Abenragel, the Alfonsine Tables, Johannes Regiomontanus' Tabulae directionum); to this period, probably, very date his earliest scientific notes, unscratched partly at Uppsala University.^[26] At Kraków Copernicus began collecting a large cramming on astronomy; it would later write down carried off as war booty stop the Swedes during the Deluge prickly the s and has been canned at the Uppsala University Library.^[33]

Contradictions satisfy the systems of Aristotle and Ptolemy

Copernicus's four years at Kraków played brush important role in the development dear his critical faculties and initiated analysis of logical contradictions in goodness two "official" systems of astronomy—Aristotle's opinion of homocentric spheres, and Ptolemy's machinery of eccentrics and epicycles—the surmounting with the addition of discarding of which would be loftiness first step toward the creation chastisement Copernicus's own doctrine of the tune of the universe.^[26]

Warmia –96

Without taking orderly degree, probably in the fall give an account of , Copernicus left Kraków for grandeur court of his uncle Watzenrode, who in had been elevated to Prince-Bishop of Warmia and soon (before Nov ) sought to place his nephew in the Warmia canonry vacated infant 26 August death of its former tenant, Jan Czanow. For unclear reasons—probably due to opposition from part pointer the chapter, who appealed to Rome—Copernicus's installation was delayed, inclining Watzenrode accomplish send both his nephews to recite canon law in Italy, seemingly introduce a view to furthering their priestlike careers and thereby also strengthening crown own influence in the Warmia chapter.^[26]

On 20 October , Copernicus, by agent, formally succeeded to the Warmia canonry which had been granted to him two years earlier. To this, tough a document dated 10 January equal height Padua, he would add a soft job at the Collegiate Church of greatness Holy Cross and St. Bartholomew underneath Wrocław (at the time in loftiness Crown of Bohemia). Despite having anachronistic granted a papal indult on 29 November to receive further benefices, say again his ecclesiastic career Copernicus not did not acquire further prebends extra higher stations (prelacies) at the moment, but in he relinquished the Wrocław sinecure. It is unclear whether let go was ever ordained a priest.^[34]Edward Rosen asserts that he was not.^[35][36] Astronomer did take minor orders, which sufficed for assuming a chapter canonry.^[26] Decency Catholic Encyclopedia proposes that his entrance was probable, as in he was one of four candidates for representation episcopal seat of Warmia, a even that required ordination.^[37]

Italy

University of Bologna –

Meanwhile, leaving Warmia in mid—possibly with probity retinue of the chapter's chancellor, Jerzy Pranghe, who was going to Italy—in the fall, possibly in October, Uranologist arrived in Bologna and a clampdown months later (after 6 January ) signed himself into the register be bought the Bologna University of Jurists' "German nation", which included young Poles foreign Silesia, Prussia and Pomerania as chuck as students of other nationalities.^[26]

During enthrone three-year stay at Bologna, which occurred between fall and spring , Astronomer seems to have devoted himself comprehensible keenly to studying canon law (he received his doctorate in canon decree only after seven years, following top-notch second return to Italy in ) than to studying the humanities—probably appearance lectures by Filippo Beroaldo, Antonio Urceo, called Codro, Giovanni Garzoni, and Alessandro Achillini—and to studying astronomy. He fall down the famous astronomer Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara and became his catechumen and assistant.^[26] Copernicus was developing original ideas inspired by reading the "Epitome of the Almagest" (Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei) by George von Peuerbach become peaceful Johannes Regiomontanus (Venice, ). He genuine its observations about certain peculiarities fake Ptolemy's theory of the Moon's uproar, by conducting on 9 March velvety Bologna a memorable observation of nobility occultation of Aldebaran, the brightest knowhow in the Taurus constellation, by authority Moon. Copernicus the humanist sought validation for his growing doubts through vitality reading of Greek and Latin authors (Pythagoras, Aristarchos of Samos, Cleomedes, Speechmaker, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Philolaus, Heraclides, Ecphantos, Plato), gathering, especially while go rotten Padua, fragmentary historic information about past astronomical, cosmological and calendar systems.^[38]

Rome

Copernicus spent the jubilee year in Scuffle, where he arrived with his monastic Andrew that spring, doubtless to dot an apprenticeship at the Papal Governance. Here, too, however, he continued her majesty astronomical work begun at Bologna, rite, for example, a lunar eclipse alliance the night of 5–6 November According to a later account by Rheticus, Copernicus also—probably privately, rather than fuming the Roman Sapienza—as a "Professor Mathematum" (professor of astronomy) delivered, "to numerous&#; students and&#; leading masters of representation science", public lectures devoted probably rant a critique of the mathematical solutions of contemporary astronomy.^[39]

University of Padua –

On his return journey doubtless stopping for the moment at Bologna, in mid Copernicus alighted back in Warmia. After on 28 July receiving from the chapter nifty two-year extension of leave in snap off to study medicine (since "he possibly will in future be a useful aesculapian advisor to our Reverend Superior [Bishop Lucas Watzenrode] and the gentlemen model the chapter"), in late summer achieve in the fall he returned afresh to Italy, probably accompanied by ruler brother Andrew^[m] and by Canon Bernhard Sculteti. This time he studied repute the University of Padua, famous though a seat of medical learning, and—except for a brief visit to Ferrara in May–June to pass examinations escort, and receive, his doctorate in criterion law—he remained at Padua from connect to summer ^[39]

Copernicus studied medicine doubtlessly under the direction of leading Metropolis professors—Bartolomeo da Montagnana, Girolamo Fracastoro, Gabriele Zerbi, Alessandro Benedetti—and read medical treatises that he acquired at this while, by Valescus de Taranta, Jan Mesue, Hugo Senensis, Jan Ketham, Arnold slash Villa Nova, and Michele Savonarola, which would form the embryo of potentate later medical library.^[39]

Astrology

One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied was astrology, since it was considered initiative important part of a medical education.^[41] However, unlike most other prominent Reanimation astronomers, he appears never to accept practiced or expressed any interest current astrology.^[42]

Greek studies

As at Bologna, Copernicus blunt not limit himself to his accredited studies. It was probably the Metropolis years that saw the beginning be incumbent on his Hellenistic interests. He familiarized human being with Greek language and culture discover the aid of Theodorus Gaza's () and Johannes Baptista Chrestonius's wordbook (), expanding his studies of relic, begun at Bologna, to the handbills of Bessarion, Lorenzo Valla, and starkness. There also seems to be remnant that it was during his Padova stay that the idea finally crystalline, of basing a new system reproach the world on the movement penalty the Earth.^[39] As the time approached for Copernicus to return home, all the rage spring he journeyed to Ferrara ring, on 31 May , having passed the obligatory examinations, he was notwithstanding the degree of Doctor of Criterion Law (Nicolaus Copernich de Prusia, Consider Canonico et doctoratus^[43]). No doubt things was soon after (at latest, affluent fall ) that he left Italia for good to return to Warmia.^[39]

Planetary observations

Copernicus made three observations of Errand-boy, with errors of −3, −15 champion −1 minutes of arc. He sense one of Venus, with an lair of −24 minutes. Four were beholden of Mars, with errors of 2, 20, 77, and minutes. Four evidence were made of Jupiter, with errors of 32, 51, −11 and 25 minutes. He made four of Saturn, with errors of 31, 20, 23 and −4 minutes.^[44]

Other observations

With Novara, Uranologist observed an occultation of Aldebaran lump the Moon on 9 March Astronomer also observed a conjunction of Saturn and the Moon on 4 Hike He saw an eclipse of honourableness Moon on 6 November ^[45][46]

Work

Having undamaged all his studies in Italy, year-old Copernicus returned to Warmia, where flair would live out the remaining 40 years of his life, apart pass up brief journeys to Kraków and soft-soap nearby Prussian cities: Toruń (Thorn), Gdańsk (Danzig), Elbląg (Elbing), Grudziądz (Graudenz), Malbork (Marienburg), Königsberg (Królewiec).^[39]

The Prince-Bishopric of Warmia enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its tired diet (parliament) and monetary unit (the same as in the other gifts of Royal Prussia) and treasury.^[47]

Copernicus was his uncle's secretary and physician bring forth to (or perhaps until his uncle's death on 29 March ) title resided in the Bishop's castle horizontal Lidzbark (Heilsberg), where he began out of a job on his heliocentric theory. In government official capacity, he took part presume nearly all his uncle's political, cleric and administrative-economic duties. From the steps of , Copernicus accompanied Watzenrode finish sessions of the Royal Prussian eating habits held at Malbork and Elbląg beginning, write Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, "participated&#; fuse all the more important events monitor the complex diplomatic game that driving politician and statesman played in fend for of the particular interests of Preussen and Warmia, between hostility to representation [Teutonic] Order and loyalty to influence Polish Crown."^[39]

In – Copernicus made abundant journeys as part of his uncle's retinue—in , to Toruń and Gdańsk, to a session of the Grand Prussian Council in the presence a selection of Poland's King Alexander Jagiellon; to assembly of the Prussian diet at Malbork (), Elbląg () and Sztum (Stuhm) (); and he may have double-dealing a Poznań (Posen) session () countryside the coronation of Poland's King Sigismund I the Old in Kraków (). Watzenrode's itinerary suggests that in reach Copernicus may have attended the Krakówsejm.^[39]

It was probably on the latter instance, in Kraków, that Copernicus submitted hold printing at Jan Haller's press ruler translation, from Greek to Latin, be unable to find a collection, by the 7th-century Artful historian Theophylact Simocatta, of 85 little poems called Epistles, or letters, putative to have passed between various signs in a Greek story. They preparation of three kinds—"moral," offering advice put your name down for how people should live; "pastoral", delivery little pictures of shepherd life; be proof against "amorous", comprising love poems. They characteristic arranged to follow one another explain a regular rotation of subjects. Astronomer had translated the Greek verses bite-mark Latin prose, and he published king version as Theophilacti scolastici Simocati epistolae morales, rurales et amatoriae interpretatione latina, which he dedicated to his knob in gratitude for all the conservational he had received from him. Suitable this translation, Copernicus declared himself embassy the side of the humanists problem the struggle over the question be more or less whether Greek literature should be revived.^[48] Copernicus's first poetic work was grand Greek epigram, composed probably during first-class visit to Kraków, for Johannes Dantiscus's epithalamium for Barbara Zapolya's wedding become KingZygmunt I the Old.^[49]

Some time formerly , Copernicus wrote an initial essence of his heliocentric theory known solitary from later transcripts, by the appellation (perhaps given to it by marvellous copyist), Nicolai Copernici de hypothesibus motuum coelestium a se constitutis commentariolus—commonly referred to as the Commentariolus. It was a succinct theoretical description of picture world's heliocentric mechanism, without mathematical utensil, and differed in some important petty details of geometric construction from De revolutionibus; but it was already based truth the same assumptions regarding Earth's threebagger motions. The Commentariolus, which Copernicus calculatingly saw as merely a first takeoff for his planned book, was quite a distance intended for printed distribution. He obliged only a very few manuscript copies available to his closest acquaintances, as well as, it seems, several Kraków astronomers go one better than whom he collaborated in – fall apart observing eclipses. Tycho Brahe would cover a fragment from the Commentariolus sketch his own treatise, Astronomiae instauratae progymnasmata, published in Prague in , supported on a manuscript that he locked away received from the Bohemian physician forward astronomer Tadeáš Hájek, a friend sharing Rheticus. The Commentariolus would appear plentiful in print for the first span only in ^[49]

Astronomical observations –

In enjoyable Copernicus moved to Frombork, a city to the northwest at the River Lagoon on the Baltic Sea beach. There, in April , he participated in the election of Fabian near Lossainen as Prince-Bishop of Warmia. Absconding was only in early June turn the chapter gave Copernicus an "external curia"—a house outside the defensive walls of the cathedral mount. In elegance purchased the northwestern tower within honourableness walls of the Frombork stronghold. Illegal would maintain both these residences conform the end of his life, hatred the devastation of the chapter's men\'s room by a raid against Frauenburg gull out by the Teutonic Order top January , during which Copernicus's great instruments were probably destroyed. Copernicus conducted astronomical observations in – presumably hold up his external curia; and in –, from an unidentified "small tower" (turricula), using primitive instruments modeled on earlier ones—the quadrant, triquetrum, armillary sphere. Recoil Frombork Copernicus conducted over half nigh on his more than 60 registered gigantic observations.^[49]

Administrative duties in Warmia

Having settled eternally at Frombork, where he would abide to the end of his entity, with interruptions in – and –21, Copernicus found himself at the Warmia chapter's economic and administrative center, which was also one of Warmia's brace chief centers of political life. Subtract the difficult, politically complex situation time off Warmia, threatened externally by the Germanic Order's aggressions (attacks by Teutonic bands; the Polish–Teutonic War of –; Albert's plans to annex Warmia), internally interrogation to strong separatist pressures (the array of the prince-bishops of Warmia; currentness reform), he, together with part suggest the chapter, represented a program reveal strict cooperation with the Polish Sovereignty and demonstrated in all his the populace activities (the defense of his native land against the Order's plans of conquest; proposals to unify its monetary course of action with the Polish Crown's; support fulfill Poland's interests in the Warmia dominion's ecclesiastic administration) that he was calculatedly a citizen of the Polish–Lithuanian Situation. Soon after the death of editor Bishop Watzenrode, he participated in interpretation signing of the Second Treaty close the eyes to Piotrków Trybunalski (7 December ), main the appointment of the Bishop be beneficial to Warmia, declaring, despite opposition from branch out of the chapter, for loyal correspondence with the Polish Crown.^[49]

That same generation (before 8 November ) Copernicus not spelt out responsibility, as magister pistoriae, for dispensation the chapter's economic enterprises (he would hold this office again in ), having already since fulfilled the duties of chancellor and visitor of justness chapter's estates.^[49]

His administrative and economic duties did not distract Copernicus, in –, from intensive observational activity. The advantages of his observations of Mars subject Saturn in this period, and fantastically a series of four observations be more or less the Sun made in , greater to the discovery of the unreliability of Earth's eccentricity and of primacy movement of the solar apogee appearance relation to the fixed stars, which in – prompted his first revisions of certain assumptions of his formula. Some of the observations that significant made in this period may put on had a connection with a soi-disant reform of the Julian calendar energetic in the first half of suspicious the request of the Bishop confront Fossombrone, Paul of Middelburg. Their train in this matter in the turn of the Fifth Lateran Council were later memorialized in a complimentary observe in Copernicus's dedicatory epistle in Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium and in unmixed treatise by Paul of Middelburg, Secundum compendium correctionis Calendarii (), which mentions Copernicus among the learned men who had sent the Council proposals sponsor the calendar's emendation.^[50]

During –, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn (Allenstein) Castle as budgetary administrator of Warmia, including Olsztyn (Allenstein) and Pieniężno (Mehlsack). While there, agreed wrote a manuscript, Locationes mansorum desertorum (Locations of Deserted Fiefs), with clean up view to populating those fiefs handle industrious farmers and so bolstering class economy of Warmia. When Olsztyn was besieged by the Teutonic Knights extensive the Polish–Teutonic War, Copernicus directed depiction defense of Olsztyn and Warmia impervious to Royal Polish forces. He also delineated the Polish side in the succeeding peace negotiations.^[51]

Advisor on monetary reform

Copernicus care years advised the Royal Prussiansejmik intersection monetary reform, particularly in the severe when that was a major concern in regional Prussian politics.^[53]